Large-eddy simulations (LES) are performed to examine the effects of a monochromatic wave field on the flow and power output of an inline offshore wind turbine array. The air–sea interaction is modeled using a one-way coupling framework implemented through a hybrid immersed-boundary/level-set method. The water-side velocity field is prescribed using the solution of linear wave theory. The airflow field responds dynamically to the evolving sea-surface elevation, which is tracked via the level-set equation. By varying wind–wave alignment (aligned vs. opposing) and wave age (young waves to old waves), the influence of different sea states on the array performance are investigated. Our findings show that the presence of surface waves modifies the mean flow and wake recovery within the array. Wind-opposing wave conditions lead to enhanced momentum transport and increased Reynolds shear stresses in the wake of the wind turbines. This momentum redistribution promotes faster wake recovery compared to both wind-aligned wave cases and the baseline onshore scenario. Elevated power fluctuations compared to the baseline case are found when wind and waves are opposing. Relative to the baseline case, the mean power production of the array increases by 2.6% and 6% for wind–wave aligned and wind–wave opposing conditions, respectively, for the wave ages considered in this work. Overall, the findings highlight the impact of wave-induced turbulence modulation and wake dynamics on offshore wind farm performance.
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